In this article, Steve Bitgood, Professor Emeritus of Psychology, Jacksonville State University, presents general principles that can be used to guide exhibit designers, facility planners, and decision-makers of exhibit-type facilities. Bitgood offers two principles of visitor behavior that deal with physical qualities of the exhibit object or spieces.
Six museum education and learning researchers discuss the need to study how people learn and behave in museums and what kind of current research studies should be undertaken. Mary Ellen Munley, in "Back to the Future: A Call for Coordinated Research Programs in Museums," describes the differences between the terms "evaluation,""audience research," and "education research" and recommends establishing major systematic programs of museum-based research that are similar to ones initiated in the 1920s and 1930s. In "Educational Exhibitions: Some Areas for Controlled Research," C. G. Screven
Millions of people visit science museums every year (Kimche, 1978; Koran & Dierking-Shafter, 1982). Accordingly, a great deal has been written in the last few years about hte value of out-of-school learning experiences, museum experiences in particular, for enhancing scientific literacy (c.f. Kimche, 1978; Koran & Baker, 1978; Tressel, 1980; Falk, 1982a). In this paper, [the authors] will discuss some of the strengths and weaknesses of museums as agents for science learning.
The St. Louis Science Center is a major metropolitan science museum serving a population of 2.3 million people. One year ago they moved into a new facility at a new location and attendance at the museum has tripled, reaching 600,00 visitors this past year. The center will develop a "Science Playground" in order to teach basic science principles and process through a series of 45 outdoor participatory exhibitions around the major areas of motion, energy, light, sound and the natural environment. The physics of motion will be explored through exhibits such as a friction slide, lunar gravity swing, double-axis human pendulum, etc. Energy exhibits will provide experiences with watermills and water power, fulcrum leverage and solar energy. Light exploration includes a solar column, prisms and rainbows, soundwheel and whisper discs. A weather station will have a rain gauge, anemometer, a variety of barometers, etc. This contemporary playground concept was developed as a response to limitations of indoor facilities and to extend use of outdoor space in a creative manner. The exhibit will be a model for extending science learning opportunities for schools, parks, other science museums and similar institutions. The center surveyed 31 science centers, 82 parks and 85 school districts to gauge interest in use of science playground exhibits, and found a clear interest in this type of project by all sectors surveyed. Exhibit designs will be published and furnished at cost to any facility wishing to replicate all or any part of the exhibition.
The Association of Science-Technology Centers, representing some 170 science museums, receives regular requests for information on the status of science museums, their education programs, exhibits and other activities. To respond to this need, the organization will collect and analyze data on the status and activities of both member and non-member science museums. The material will be published as three reports and made available on computer disks for further study. The information is particularly useful to communities considering new museums, and to trustees and contributors to current museums and others who have an interest in the priorities and policies of education and exhibits programs. The project will be assisted by an advisory committee and Dr. Sue Smock, Director of the Center for Urban Studies, Wayne State University.
The American Psychological Association, in cooperation with the Association of Science-Technology Centers (ASTC), will develop a series of exhibits on psychology using a discovery room/science laboratory approach. The exhibition will, for the first time, offer museum visitors a first hand opportunity to explore the tools, methods, and concepts of psychology in such areas as thinking and feeling, dreaming and sleeping, perceiving and communicating. The exhibition will travel to eight museums over 30 months through the ASTC traveling exhibition service and will reach over a million visitors. A wide selection of additional materials and resources such as films, seminars, lectures and workshops will be offered to the participating museums to extend the impact of the exhibition. Plans of the exhibits will be made available to other museums. NSF support represents less than 50% of the total cost of the project.
The Mississippi Museum of Natural Science (MMNS) will develop a program over the next two years aimed at teachers and students in grades 3-7. The project will develop teacher kits and "hands-on" exhibits tied to the new state curriculum and to the science television series "3-2-1 Contact". The MMNS is a division of the Mississippi Department of Wildlife Conservation and is designated as the official natural science museum by the State Legislature. The Museum has been in operation for 50 years and, since its inception, has served as a resource for classroom teachers. Mississippi has approximately 500,000 public school students attending about 1,000 schools. One third of these children are considered to live below the poverty level and 50 percent are from minority groups--a priority for the NSF. The MMNS has had success with a small pilot project which coordinates science concepts taught in the television series "3-2-1 Contact" with exhibit programs at the Museum. Over the next two years MMNS will expand their "hands-on" exhibits and develop science kits for use in the classroom in coordination with the new state curriculum and the television series. The kits will include museum objects, suggested activities and a teacher's guide. During the first year a series of "Contact Days" will be held with teachers and students across the state to develop and test the effectiveness of the project along with a lecture program by minority and women scientists. During the second year the exhibits will travel to schools across the state.
The New York Hall of Science will develop a major exhibition on quantum theory--one of the most important developments in physical science in this century and one which has not been significantly treated by science museums. This exhibition will be the first major museum program to introduce quantum theory and its applications to the public. Elements of the exhibit will include models of the atom, the puzzle of light, applications of the theory and, finally, the human story of the creation of a new theory. Numerous participatory exhibits will be developed in conjunction with the project so that visitors can learn by doing. Formative evaluation will be an integral part of this exhibit. This technique has recently been adopted by museums as a way to test exhibit prototypes with museum visitors and then redesign as necessary. A workshop will be held for museum personnel and a guidebook, Improving Exhibits Through Formative Evaluation, will be produced. This book will be the first complete description of the formative evaluation process and will be a valuable addition to the museum field.
The California Academy of Sciences, a major natural history institution located in San Francisco, will develop Life Through Time, a large permanent exhibition on evolution that will inform and challenge visitors as they "walk through" a series of exhibits which encourages them to touch and explore. The exhibition will cover the history of life on earth, how scientists recognize and evaluate change through time, the scientific method and process of discovering, and the impact of evolution. A teacher's educational resource kit with hands-on materials will be developed for use in the schools along with teacher training courses. The exhibition will reach a substantial audience, over a million and a half visitors per year. Additionally, 44% of the San Francisco elementary school children are visited each year by Academy docents, the mobile classroom reaches 7,000 Bay Area residents, over 5,000 children and adults take classes at the Academy and 10,000 school children visit the museum each year.
This project at the North Carolina Museum of Life and Science, Durham, North Carolina, will create a 2000 square foot permanent exhibition, "The Science Behind Medicine", using recent advances in medical science and technology to illustrate basic science concepts. It will engage visitors through their strong interest in health and medicine, present valuable information about medical subjects, and use their interest to present underlying scientific concepts they would otherwise avoid. The exhibition will be organized around four topics: organ structure and function and organ replacement and transplantation; advances in medical imaging, including infrared, ultrasound and x-ray technologies; pharmaceutical pharmacology, biological receptors and molecular design; and sickle cell anemia and its molecular biology. Over five years, more than one million people will use the exhibit, including both highly educated residents of the Research Triangle area, and a Durham population that is disadvantaged and 50% black. Extensive subject area consultation and formative evaluation will be used in exhibition design. A close consulting relationship is planned with two museums with similar exhibit interests, and exhibit research and plans will be offered to other interested museums to encourage wider use of the project's results. A strong regional health sciences focus will benefit the project through academic, business, community and industry membership on a project planning committee, and from 50% local matching funding. Two corporate planning grants have been awarded to the project, and a major facilities expansion funded in part by a recent bond issue.
The California Museum of Science and Industry will create a 3,000 square foot permanent exhibition of hands-on participatory exhibits on chemistry and chemical phenomena that will allow visitors to manipulate the variables of chemical systems. Forty exhibit units will be organized in clusters in that represent the basic concepts of properties of atoms and molecules, molecular structure and chemical reactions, stability of molecules and rates of reactions, forces between atoms and molecules and energy of atoms and molecules. The exhibition will use state-of-the-art technology to present chemical experiments previously left to the lab bench or the demonstration table. Interactive computers and videodiscs will be used where danger or complexity prevents the visitor from using "the real thing." Exhibit content will be proved in prototype form and tested on museum staff, visitors, and school groups prior to final design and construction. NSF support will be used in the design and prototype phases, and an "exhibit cookbook" of exhibit technologies for use by other museums will be created. The project has already attracted more than $175,000 of matching funds towards a total of $800,000 in non-NSF matching funds to support its $1,100,000 budget.
The Peninsula Nature and Science Center (PNSC) in Newport News, Virginia, has been serving the informal science education needs of the Virginia Peninsula region for the past 17 years. As a "living museum" it is a combination of a natural history museum, zoological and botanical garden, nature center, aquaria and science center. By means of living plants and animals, the PNSC plans to develop a series of comprehensive indoor and outdoor exhibitions explaining, interpreting and providing participatory experiences for visitors about the Atlantic Coastal Plain area. The Commonwealth of Virginia has allocated a million dollars toward construction of the proposed facility expansion and the PNSC has raised an additional $502,560 for facilities and exhibits. The National Science Foundation grant will provide funds for the indoor exhibits which include: "A Walk in the Past," covering the geology of the area, a time line wall with touch specimens, the earth's formation and the Dismal Swamp; "How Life Survives," covering food gathering, protection, shelter and living space and propagation along with a microscope station; and the "World of Darkness," where activities of nocturnal animals can be observed. The PNSC has an extensive teaching program with the elementary schools in the region. They plan to expand these activities and, additionally, expect to have a statewide impact since they will be a prime informal science education resource in the state. They also have the potential of becoming a model for the 1600 nature and science centers in the U.S.